Click through for the complete archives on Churchill and Roosvelt’s first post Pearl Harbour summit.

Here is a huge archive of US foreign policy documents from 1931-41, what a find, I am going to patiently work my way through these over the coming weeks, but if you are desperate to read on, click here now.
First up is a round up of the 1930s from the perspective of the USA described as ‘the fateful decade, here is an abridged roundup:

“THE FATEFUL decade, 1931-1941, began and ended with acts of violence by Japan. It was marked by the ruthless development of a determined policy of world domination on the part of Japan, Germany, and Italy.

In 1931 Japan seized Manchuria. Two years later Germany withdrew from the Disarmament Conference and began rearming. In 1934 Japan gave notice of termination of the Washington Treaty for the Limitation of Naval Armament.

In 1935 Italy invaded Ethiopia. In 1936 Hitler tore up the Treaty of Locarno and fortified the demilitarized Rhineland Zone. In 1937 Japan again attacked China. In 1938 Hitler occupied Austria and dismembered Czechoslovakia. During the first half of 1939 Hitler completed the destruction of Czechoslovakia and seized Memel, while Italy invaded Albania.

In September 1939 Hitler struck at Poland, and during the two years that followed almost all of the countries of Europe were plunged or dragged into war. In 1940 Japan with threats of force entered French Indochina. Finally, on December 7, 1941, Japan launched an armed attack on the United States, followed immediately by declarations of war against the United States on the part of Japan, of Germany, of Italy, and of their satellites.”

That about sums it up…more follows.

White’s wartime closeness to the USSR (which, the fact that America was allied to the Soviets, was hardly surprising) came under close scrutiny and there does appear to be circumstantial evidence to suggest that he may have been a Soviet agent. However, it is not the job of historians to give the nod to vague or generalised ‘possibilities’, but to find solid evidence. In this case it seems more likely that White, who with Keynes was the architect of institutions that gave global capitalism it’s longest and most profitable epoch ever, was anything but a communist, he was simply a social democrat (which in the fevered climate of the late 1940s might have amounted to the same thing).

There were indeed Soviet spies in America, but White was unlikely to have been one of them.

A defence of Harry Dexter White

To understand the fallout from Pearl Harbour, we have to divide it into the immediate effects and the long-term effects.

Short Term

In the short term, America found itself having to declare war on Japan, which it did on December 8th, the day after the attack. It then did so against on Nazi Germany and Mussolini’s Italy on the 11th of December. This was to end America’s policy of anti-interventionism and also mark a major turning point in World War Two.

Though, America made inroads through its cash and carry and Lend-Lease policies in the previous years. It was this act that most believe drew the full antagonised might of America into the war. The failure of the Japanese to send a third wave and destroy American arms and fuel bunkers and most of its military capacity, meant America could quickly enter the war on both fronts. Essentially, Pearl Harbour and America’s entry was to be an eventual decisive point in the Allied victory of World War Two.

Roosevelt and Churchill met in January 1942 at the Arcadia conference and decided that foremost defeating Germany and winning the War in Europe was a priority. America sent large amounts of resources to Europe to complete this aim.

The War in the Pacific was secondary in importance and didn’t receive the resources of the European campaign. It was not until the Battle of Midway in 1942 that the turning point in the Pacific came. Japan had captured much of South East Asia, including the Philippines and Burma by this time. Though, America’s power overturned the Land of the Rising Sun’s victories and saw its eventual defeat by 1945.

American influence was pivotal in Allied victories on both fronts with V E Day coming on May 8th 1945 and V J Day declared on August 14 of the same year. Japanese surrender coming after the dropping of two atomic bombs by America on the Japanese cities of Nagasaki and Hiroshima. American had been instrumental in the defeat of the Axis Powers.

The Bigger Picture

In the long term America understood it was required in the world and put aside its fears of being the World’s policeman. This meant America pursued a very active foreign policy from 1945 onwards.

Following the Yalta Conference, and Stalin’s reneging on promises of free elections in Eastern European countries, situated the Soviet Side of the Iron Curtain, problems began. This failure saw the start of the ideological differences between the USA and the Soviet Union, which by 1947 would develop into the Cold War.

America knew it needed a strong Europe that wouldn’t be influenced by the red flag and so offering it a package to aid reconstruction in June 1947. This would become known as the Marshall Plan. The Marshall Plan was also offered to countries on the Eastern side of the divide and also to the Soviets, but they refused. Over the next half a decade, America would pump billions of dollars into Europe to prevent Soviet influence.

The next forty years would see America enter into disputes all over the world, many of which were ideological. Wars in Korea, Vietnam, South East Asia, the Middle East and elsewhere would create a intertwining web of complex alliances, spheres of influence and also problems for America. Each of which can be at the very least, indirectly and partially attributed to the Attack on Pearl Harbour and the end of American non-intervention.

By late 1941 a Gallup Poll found 52 per cent of Americans expected war with Japan, however US officials doubted there would be an attack on Pearl Harbour. They expected the Philippines to be attacked first, which as we now know obviously, did not turn out to be the case.

Though not at war Japan and America were at loggerheads and battle seemed imminent – particularly after the American Oil Embargo.

By attacking Pearl Harbour, Japan hoped to destroy the American fleet, allowing it to conquer the Dutch East Indies – an oil rich area. It also hoped to slow America down before it began the largest naval procurement in history. Finally, it hoped to destroy American naval confidence and allow Japan the position as king of the Pacific.

The attack was split into a primary and secondary attack, with the former to destroy most of the targets. The attack incorporated six aircraft carriers, over 400 planes and a number of submarines.

Though, Japan had intended to declare war on America and attack 30 minutes later, the attack began before war was declared as transcribing the message took longer than expected. Code breakers had translated most of the message before it was delivered . The final part of the message didn’t directly declare war or offer a diplomatic reasons why there was a reason for war, however US Government officials understood it to be a likelihood.

The first attack of 183 planes began at just before 7:50AM Hawaiian Time and was made up of slow torpedo planes. These hit the fleets battleships, made as a statement to hurt American pride. Dive bombers then attacked the base. The second wave of planes then stuck the Bellows Field near Kaneohe.

This all resulted in scrambling and a very unprepared American force woken to the now infamous ‘Air Raid Pearl Harbour. This is not a drill’ statement.

Within one and a half hours of the attack 2,386 Americans were dead and 1,139 wounded and 18 ships had been sunk, five of which were battle ships. Half of all American deaths were caused by a 16 inch shell hitting the USS Arizona’s magazine. America had 402 planes in Hawaii, of which 188 were destroyed outright and 159 damaged, only four off the ground.

Only 64 Japanese lost their lives and one was captured, with 29 planes destroyed and 74 damaged by air craft guns.

A third attack was encouraged, but never took place. This was to be aimed at the fuel and torpedo storage and dry dock facilities. This didn’t happen though it has been suggested it would have caused far more serious damage to the American war effort and even might have prolonged the war by up to two more years.

The Japanese withdrew for a number of reasons. Two of which were the unknown position of the American carriers as well as the fact the Americans were now awake and Japan had seen its losses rise significantly after the second strike – a third strike may see major casualties.

Also, it would have taken a long time to prepare a third wave, allowing for Royal Navy to get involved and also risking low fuel. Finally, Japan understood the primary goal of the attack had been satisfied by the second strike and the Pacific Fleet was now neutralised.

Unfortunately for Japan, the ships destroyed were in shallow water and could be salvaged and repaired. Also, as the water wasn’t deep many American’s survived the attack. Finally, none of the US’s Pacific Aircraft carriers were at Pearl Harbour that day and so were not destroyed.

As it turned out the lack of a third strike and the failure to destroy dockyard, maintenance shops and oil storage areas meant America could quickly resume its activities in the Atlantic. America declared war on Japan December the 8th 1941 and on Nazi Germany and Italy, three days later.

Though, the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbour in 1941 came as a surprise to Americans; Japanese – American relations had be strained from as far back as 1915.

Japan’s ‘Twenty One Demands’ to China which meant Japan was to receive privileged status in parts of its neighbour were in direct conflict to America’s ‘Open Door Policy’. This document understood all countries were to respect Chinese sovereignty and so be allowed to uniformly access Chinese goods and trade.

Though, the early 1920s posed few problems, the late 1920s were a different story. Japan’s dependence on international trade and few resources of its own, meant this overpopulated nation struggled. Japan’s solution was the decision to settle its excess population in the Chinese province of Manchuria. This would solve the problem of over population, while also allowing Japan the chance to control the Chinese import market.

Japan became increasingly aggressive towards China and in 1931 invaded Manchuria after the Mukden Incident. The incident was an event staged by Japanese military, where the armed forces blew up a small piece of railway owned by Japan and blamed it on Chinese dissidents. This was considered as a perfect pretext to justify the Japanese Invasion of Manchuria. Though, it was reported to the International community and led to Japan’s withdrawal from the League of Nations in 1933.

This invasion was also described dimly in the Western press, with reports of bombing of civilians and shell shocked survivors in the papers. These reports all caused much anger and hostility towards Japan until after World War Two.

America continued with its isolation and Japan was persistent in its expansion into China. The next turning point was the Japanese failure to sign the Second London Naval Treaty in 1936. This occurred as the US and Great Britain didn’t grant the Imperial Japanese Navy equal footing with their navies. This was followed with the beginning of the second Sino-Japanese War in 1937 and further international condemnation. This was exacerbated by European fears for colonies in South East Asia.

America ended its 1911 commercial treaty with Japan and in 1940 the Asian nation signed the Axis Tripartite Pact with Italy and Nazi Germany. America took this as a message of intent. Roosevelt was now sandwiched between a Nazi Europe and Japanese controlled Asia and so began to loan money and materials to aid Europe’s and China’s war effort. This would move America from relatively neutral to the brink of war.

Japan moved on Indochina, having persuaded the now stretched French Government to allow it to do so. In return for these aggressive actions America stopped scrap metal shipments to the island nation. The United States also closed the Panama Canal to Japanese shipping. After Japan’s further inroad into Indochina, America froze all oil and gas imports to the country.

As 80 per cent of oil came from America, Japan felt the economic squeeze and feared having to pull out of China – a humiliation. Trade sanctions would mean Japan would run out of oil within months – a disaster was on the horizon.

This led to a reconsideration by Japan of whether they should attack the oil rich Dutch East Indies, though it would mean certain war with the United States. Multiple meetings were held between the USA in the hope of avoiding this, and after much scrambling no solution could be found.

Japan knew that the only way would be to continue with their expansion was to declare war on America in the most destructive fashion possible and they did so with the attack on Pearl Harbour in December 1941.

The origins of the American ideological fondness towards isolation can be credited with Thomas Paine and his doctrine of Common Sense. This saw America stand along for most of the 19th century. The first signs of a change came with the Spanish- American War of 1898, which saw America occupy the Philippines.

So, it did not come as a surprise that America took this segregated mantle again after its intervention into World War One. Though, Woodrow Wilson had tried to secure the support of America for his League of Nations, after the Treaty of Versailles , Americans had no urge to acts as the World’s Policeman. Opposition in the American Senate from Republicans ensured the United States wouldn’t ratify the agreement.

America took an unofficial interest in foreign affairs and though they didn’t commit to the League of Nations, would engage in foreign policy now and again on their own terms. The loosely based Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928, between America, France and 13 other nations, which naively aimed to outlaw war, was entered into by America. Though, this was merely considered as a gesture of good will.

However, with 1929 came the Wall Street Crash and economic panic. The USA became solely fixed upon its own problems. This upping of isolation would be one of the breaks that would allow fascist governments to come to power in Europe and Asia. The likelihood of war increased by the rise of Hitler, this coming to power partially caused by the heavy sanctions and economic meltdown of Germany after the Treaty of Versailles.

There was no taste for war in America and though the threat of Nazi Germany was evident in the mid/late 1930s – American congress wanted nothing to do with the outside world. This was best seen with the passing of the Neutrality Acts, which sought to prevent entanglement with European affairs. These acts made no divide between aggressor and victim and were introduced to Britain’s dismay. In all there were four neutrality acts, the 1935,36, 37 and 39.

The acts of 1935 and 1936 imposed bans on trading in arms with all parties at war, with a ban on loans to these countries coming in 1936. The 1937 act allowed a ‘cash and carry’ scheme. This allowed the sale of goods to belligerent countries as long as they arranged transport of the goods from America and paid cash on delivery. This was seen as a move to help Britain and France as they controlled the seas, and so Germany was unable to take benefit.

Roosevelt did not invoke the Neutrality Acts in Asia, this allowed China to benefit during the Sino-Japanese War of 1937. Though scorned by Isolationists in Congress, Roosevelt felt that because aggressor Japan could take advantage of cash and carry, it would be safer not to implement it in the Pacific region. Roosevelt stated the America would not transport arms to either country, however he allowed British ships to do so, in a shrewd move that helped China defend itself against an increasingly aggressive Japan.

In 1937 Roosevelt moved away from neutrality towards ‘quarantining’ all aggressors. This speech, known as the Quarintine Speech’ is said to have met mixed reception and intensified the feeling of isolation in America. An embargo on the export of American aircraft to Japan was also imposed. This showed a change from complete isolation.

The 1939 Neutrality act came into prevalence on November 4th over a month after France and Great Britain had declared war on an invading Nazi Germany. This act repealed the 1935 and 1937 Neutrality acts and allowed arms trade with belligerent nations on a cash and carry basis. By 1941 this policy was changed to Lend Lease allowing America to give munitions to countries it deemed necessary.

Provisions of the Neutrality Act were repealed in Nov 1941 after the sinking of the US Destroyer Reuben James. American neutrality ended when America declared war on Japan on 8 of November 1941 after the attack on Pearl Harbour.